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Part II: TYPES OF SPEECH

Chapter 10. Conferences and Group Discussions

The right to assemble in groups is a fundamental right in every democratic society. This right is specifically granted to us in our Constitution. It has been jealously guarded since the Constitution was ratified and forms a part of our democratic heritage.

Why is it considered a basic democratic right? A democracy is a government by the people, and centuries of experience with self-government have shown men that when they work together to obtain a common goal in governing themselves, they can reach that goal more often through group effort than they can by working in isolation. The right to assemble makes it possible for people to meet in groups in order to solve problems. We have now safeguarded the right to assemble by making the motion to set the time and place of the next meeting of high privilege in parliamentary procedure; so that before a group adjourns, it has every chance of setting the time when it will meet next.

The right of assembly to govern ourselves was not always a privilege of the people. It was wrested from tyrants and kings by men who were willing to lay down their lives to secure it. Sir John Eliot of England was such a man. Through skillful use of parliamentary procedure in the House of Commons, he was able to defy Charles I. The penalty he paid was imprisonment and death.

The right to assemble in groups would be a hollow prize for which to have fought and died if the people for whom it was preserved were ignorant of its values or unskilled in its methods. We can protect that right only through the mastery of democratic group procedures.

In this book, we are concerned with five different group activities: conferences, parliamentary procedures, debates, drama, and choral reading.

Each of these methods has its own particular uses. When the group is small enough to permit participation on an equal basis, in a face-to-face relationship, conference (or group discussion) is suggested as the most appropriate method of solving problems. When the group is too large for free and equal participation, the group may proceed more effectively using parliamentary procedure to govern its affairs. Debate may occur in either the small conference group or the large assembly governed by parliamentary procedure, whenever the issues involved are sufficiently developed to allow members of the group to take sides. Drama and choral reading, even though usually considered as entertainment, are also group techniques suitable for informing and problem-solving. This chapter will concern itself with the first of the five methods of group speaking, namely, the conference or group discussion. The other four methods will be discussed in following chapters.

Man's ability to understand and to solve problems has set him above the other creatures on the earth. The problems present themselves as difficulties that must be overcome. As we solve each problem, new ones present themselves, partially because our environment is constantly changing and old solutions no longer work, and partially because the solving of problems causes our needs and desires to increase, which in turn brings us new problems. Consider atomic energy, for example. The problem to begin with was splitting the atom. Now that we have done that, we have created new problems involving the control of atomic energy uses.

A CONFERENCE PERMITS AN EXCHANGE OF IDEAS AMONG ALL MEMBERS OF THE GROUP TOWARD THE SOLUTION OF COMMON PROBLEMS

It is true that we must solve many of our problems by ourselves, but other solutions require group action. It was a series of individual contributions that permitted man to split the atom. Now we are having group meetings, to see if we can solve the problems that science has created. We call such group meetings conferences. A conference consists of a relatively small group of people called together to seek the solution to a problem of general concern.

1. Attitudes Necessary in Effective Conference Work

Before a group of people can work successfully in the conference situation, it is necessary that the members of the conference adopt certain attitudes.

The Spirit of Inquiry

A conference is a system of inquiry-a method of finding out. Each member must enter the conference with an open mind, with a sincere desire to listen and to understand other members of the group, and with a willingness to change his mind in the face of the evidence and reasoning presented.

Open-mindedness. The attitude of open-mindedness requires a person to enter the conference with a question mark in his mind concerning the nature of, and the solution to, the problem. It takes a mental habit of reserving judgment until the facts and ideas are presented. The open-minded person may have formed judgments, but these judgments should be tentative rather than fixed. An open-minded person is working toward a conclusion rather than arguing from a conclusion. It was the open minds of some great Americans which allowed us to reach the Missouri Compromise in 1820 and the Compromise of 1850.

The desire to listen and to understand others. A member of a group may know much about the problem to be discussed, and have some ideas about solving it, but he must realize that other members also have points of view. Democratic government is based on the assumption that the individual is the fundamental unit in the nation, and that the nation is built of these units, just as a building is built from bricks. The individual is all-important. Why? Well, we believe that knowledge comes from experience, and that each person has experiences that differ from others, and that he can thus make a contribution to our society that no one else can. This attitude of respect for the individual is carried over into the conference. Because of the individual's possible contribution, he must be allowed to express himself for the good of the group.

Willingness to change one's mind. Although it is normal for a person to have formulated beliefs about problems, each member of the group must be willing to surrender these beliefs in the face of more reasonable ones. It is clear that if no member of the group will change his mind about a given problem, all will leave the conference with the beliefs they brought to it, and nothing will be accomplished. If each member of the group is willing to examine his own beliefs in light of the facts and ideas presented in the conference, and is willing to revise his judgments in line with sound evidence and valid reasoning, it is possible for the group to improve on the ideas presented and to determine the best solution through collective judgment.

The Spirit of Cooperation

Our society places great emphasis upon competition. We compete in politics, in school, in athletics, in employment, and so on. Achievement is stimulated by competition because, by competing with each other, we tend to do our best for personal gains. But, there are other situations in which cooperation is substituted for competition, and people do their best in working together for the good of the group rather than for individual gains. The crew of an air force bomber cooperates, not competes, in keeping the plane flying, in hitting the target, and in protecting the plane from enemy destruction. In turn, the planes of a squadron cooperate with each other in the completion of a given mission. To work together effectively in cooperation requires a spirit of teamwork. The conference requires that each member do his share of the work.

A successful conference also requires effective leadership. A good leader is a man who can delegate responsibility. One of the surest ways to curtail opposition, for example, is to delegate responsibility to those who are the objectors. In this manner the very objectors come to feel the responsibility of the project and protect it from failure.

In conference, the opportunity to help others often comes as a chance to assist in clarifying or amplifying what someone else has said. If someone else has had a good idea, and is having trouble putting it across, help him. Keep referring to the idea as "Jim's idea", or "the point that Suzan made". If you cannot help focus the spotlight on someone else, you are failing to get into the proper spirit of the conference.

Because the success of the conference depends upon everyone participating, you should help reluctant members to speak out. Be aware of who is not contributing. Say, "John, you haven't had a chance to speak on this subject yet," or, "Molly, how do you feel about this?" Some members of the conference will talk more than others, but a few should not be permitted to dominate.

Competition requires that each one think and act individually and support the products of his own mental and physical efforts in rivalry with others. Cooperation, on the other hand, requires that you support the best ideas, regardless of who created them. You must not take pride that the group accepted your solution, but must, rather, be proud that the group agreed upon the best solution.

2. A Pattern of Reflective Thinking

When the interview was over, the father announced to his wife, "That young man is a financial genius." Actually, he knew next to nothing of the young man's financial situation, but he had been pleased by the way the boy had listened to his story.Now that we have discussed the proper attitudes toward effective conference work, we must establish a method of thinking which will help us in problem-solving. The philosopher John Dewey became interested in how people should solve their problems. He was aware that scientists had made great strides in solving the problems of the physical world. Dewey reasoned that there is no real difference between the problems of the physical world and the problems of the social world. Since the physical scientists had had much success, Dewey came to feel that the method they used to solve their problems could be employed with profit in the world of social problems. In his book, How We Think, John Dewey outlined what he called the scientific method of thinking as follows:

1. A felt need, which produces a problem
2. An analysis of the felt need or problem
3. A list of the possible solutions to the problem
4. A selection of the most reasonable solution
5. A test of the most reasonable solution

Suppose the editor of your high school newspaper receives a bill from his printer which he thinks is too high. Then: (1) He feels a need because he does not have the money to pay such a high bill; (2) He visits the printer, checks his books; (3) He considers solutions such as cutting off one issue of the paper to meet the rising printing costs, trying to raise the money through a dance, or, reducing the size of each newspaper; (4) He decides to try the dance; (5) The dance is given and the profit is $200.00, enough to pay for the rising printing costs.

These five steps should form the basis of your conference. The conference should take them up in order, first agreeing on and defining the problem, then investigating the problem, listing possible solutions to the problem, and finally choosing and testing the most reasonable solution.

3. Prepare for the Conference

Let us suppose that in your history class you are assigned to a group of six students, and that your group must present a panel discussion on some phase of English history under the Stuart Kings.

What could be the felt need here? Your first impression might be that the only felt need would be to satisfy the history teacher. But, a few moments thought brings up the reign of Charles I. Your history textbook depicts him as a weakling and a villain. Your history teacher suggests that this may or may not be the case. You ask, "Do you mean that our history text might be wrong about Charles I?" The history teacher shrugs his shoulders. This then is something for your group to find out. Your felt need is to determine the accuracy of your history text. You must state your problem carefully.

1. Do not assume too much in the statement of the problem, and therefore prejudice your question.

EXAMPLE: How weak and villainous was Charles I? This already assumes that he was partially weak and villainous. Therefore, part of the answer has already been concluded before the discussion has ever begun.

2. Do not state the question in such broad terms that there is not enough time to cover the subject.

EXAMPLE: What kind of a king was Charles I? Since you only have a short period of time, and it would take much reading and research to investigate all of Charles I's reign, you would do better to narrow your study to what you could cover in your time limit.

3. Do not select a question which cannot be answered.

EXAMPLE: What would have happened if Charles had defeated the forces of Parliament?

Such questions are poor, because they cannot be answered.

4. Do not limit the question so much that only one phase of the matter can be discussed.

EXAMPLE: Should Charles I have dismissed Buckingham?

This limits us too much, since Charles' fondness for Buckingham was only one of his problems.

The group decides to state the problem in this fashion: Should Charles I, King of England from 1625 to 1649, be depicted as a weakling and a villain?

After you have established your felt need and have phrased it correctly, you will need to define the important terms included in the statement of the problem. You and your fellow panel members must agree on the meaning of the terms before you can be sure that you are talking about the same thing. In the problem we have chosen here, the terms "weakling" and "villain" are difficult terms to define. The group might have considerable difficulty in agreeing on just what is a "weakling" and what is a "villain". But, just because it may be difficult to define your terms is no reason to ignore this step. Do not let the discussion move on until the group has agreed on the meaning of the terms.

Now that the felt need is established, you must proceed to fill in the other four steps of your outline. Preparing for a conference is similar, in many ways, to preparing for a speech. Both require thinking, talking to other people, reading available materials, and writing letters of inquiry to persons of authority. It is true that the framework of your outline is already determined by Dewey's five steps. The supporting material under each step, however, must be applied in the same manner in which you would support the points of a speech.

You should bring your completed outline along with you to the conference. Keep it in front of you so that you can work in your information at the proper time. A sample outline is presented further.

4. Participate in the Conference

To make an effective contribution to the discussion, make your comments as brief as possible; speak in an animated, conversational style; and try to keep the discussion on the subject. If someone jumps to the solution step when you are still analyzing the problem, point this out.

Keep an open mind. Try to summarize and draw things together whenever possible. Say, "Are we now ready to leave the analysis of the problem and proceed to suggested solutions?" or "How many different solutions have we proposed so far?" or "Let's review what we have done."

Do not be afraid to interrupt other members, especially if you see that they have made their point and are "running down hill". Don't be rude, but try to save the time of the group by cutting off needless comments. Use your influence to see that everyone has a chance to talk. Call other members by name, so that everyone will be identified. This is particularly useful when the conference has an audience.

A CONFERENCE LEADER'S RESPONSIBILITY INCLUDES STARTING THE DISCUSSION, KEEPING IT GOING, AND BRINGING IT TO A CONCLUSION

Agreement is the goal of conference. Agreement is not easily reached, and it takes time for each individual to speak on every point. Groups sometimes attempt to by-pass disagreements in the hope that they will be able to agree on a solution more quickly. This is often a mistake, because the disagreements which are not resolved at early stages prevent solutions later on. The successful conference cannot be hurried. A conference, like a democracy, is a time-consuming process. The justification for the delay can be measured in the results achieved.

Conference Leadership

If you are chosen to be the conference leader, there are certain responsibilities that you will have to assume in addition to those of a participant.

Get the discussion started. Start on time. Introduce each member of the conference to the other conference members and to the audience, if there is one. Plan ahead of time with your conferees who will start the discussion.

Keep the discussion going. Ask questions, when necessary, to stimulate discussion. Watch your outline to keep the comments going in an orderly fashion. You are responsible for making certain that the discussion moves along Dewey's five steps.

Remind any member, who is trying to dominate the discussion, to keep his comments brief and relevant.

Although you should avoid choosing sides, you may offer comments from time to time. Do not consider that you do not need to contribute just because you are the leader. Call a halt to any bickering or petty conflicts that may arise which tend to impede the conversation.

Bring the discussion to a satisfactory conclusion. Summarize regularly, reminding the group of how far it has gone and what it still has to accomplish. Take the responsibility for numbering the solutions offered, and so on. Take notes on what transpires. You cannot summarize unless you take notes.

Do not let the group leave a point until you think it has been considered sufficiently. It may be that the whole conference will do nothing more than decide upon the felt need, or, as we say, define the problem. That is all right. It may take another meeting to discuss the other steps.

Do not let the morale of the group drop. Keep inspiring it to continue exploring and to search more diligently.

If you are named leader for a conference, remember: (a) Your authority as leader comes from the group and may be taken away as the group desires; (b) Your obligation is to help that group reach the best solution that it can; (c) You are trying to help the group determine the will of the group; and (d) You are not solely responsible for the success or the failure of the conference, because each member shares this responsibility.

5. Types of Conferences

There are several different types of conferences.

The Panel Discussion

This form is similar to the organized conversation which we have been talking about. Members speak freely, without time limits on their remarks. They should speak extemporaneously, rather than reading prepared statements. The committee meeting often takes the form of a panel discussion.

The Symposium

Here, each member of the conference prepares a statement explaining his ideas on the first three steps of the reflective thinking process. These statements are presented in a somewhat more formal manner and may be followed by an interchange of ideas among the members of the symposium.

The Colloquy

If a group wishes to discuss a subject about which it feels a certain lack of information, it may choose to invite an expert to answer questions which arise during the discussion. The expert should speak only when questioned and should be instructed to keep his remarks as brief as possible.

The Speaker Forum

An outstanding person is invited to present his views on the felt need. Then, using the panel method, his remarks are analyzed by members of the panel.

When each of the above types of conferences is held before an audience, certain adjustments must be made. The members of the panel must be seated so that the audience can see them. Many times, opportunities are provided after the panel has discussed the first three steps of the reflective thinking process for the audience to present its points of view. Here the discussion leader must handle the questions, which may be referred either to the conference in general or to individual members of the conference. The words "panel" and "forum" and "discussion" are often used interchangeably. The names are not important as long as the persons participating understand what is expected of them. There are other styles not mentioned here, and combinations of those listed above can offer variety to the presentations.

6. Conference Evaluation

We learn how to improve our conference work by evaluating our performance with the aid of forms, such as those shown further below.

Evaluation of Individual Performance (Form I). Evaluating what and how well a person does in a conference is difficult. Opinions may vary widely from person to person. But, however subject to error such evaluations may be, they are still helpful to enable each participant to see himself as others see him.

Form I enables your teacher or your group to jot down symbols that stand for the different types of contributions that each person makes to a discussion. After the discussion is over, each member of the conference can check up on his contributions in relation to those made by others. He may then better judge if he contributed sufficiently throughout the whole discussion.

Group Evaluation (Form II). The performance of the group may be evaluated as to the way in which it thinks as a unit. The greatest barrier to effective group thinking is wandering from the subject. The group should finish one step of the pattern of reflective thinking before going on to the next.

The success with which the group sticks to the subject can be evaluated on Form II. The evaluator indicates the position of the group in relation to the issue under discussion by a heavy or jagged line. The evaluator may also record the topic and any members who got the group off the subject.

Exercises

1. Along with five of your fellow class members, choose one of the topics below and hold a conference on it before the other members of the class. Use the panel discussion style. Choose a leader from among those in your group to act as chairman or moderator.

Should religious education be offered in the public schools? Should all high school students be required to take four years of a foreign language? Should fluoride be added to drinking water to prevent tooth decay?

Should professional boxing be abolished? Should mercy killing be legalized? Should high school ROTC be required? Should eighteen-year-olds be permitted to vote?

Prepare an outline for your discussion, similar to the one given further below. List the fourth and fifth step in the reflective thinking process, but leave blank spaces under them, since they will have to be completed after the discussion is underway.

2. Listen to a conference held over the radio or on television. Write an essay, evaluating the discussion, using the five steps for reflective thinking as the five main divisions of your analysis.

3. Attend a local conference (a city council meeting, a meeting of the city planning board, a session of the school board, or such.) Write the same sort of critical essay on this conference as was suggested in Exercise 2.

4. Along with five of your fellow class members, arrange a "motion picture forum" for the class. Consult with your visual aids instructor as to what films might be available on a problem in which you are experiencing a "felt need." Show the film to the class, discuss it among yourselves, and then allow the class to ask questions about the problem or any of its steps. Choose one of your group as chairman, and prepare a discussion outline.

5. Along with five of your fellow class members, present a "speaker forum" to the class. Select a "felt need" (some problem which you and your fellow students are facing). Then invite some one outside of the class to present a short speech on the problem. Be certain to be very specific about the time limits for your speaker. After his speech, discuss the problem briefly, and then allow the class to ask questions of the speaker and your group.

6. Along with five of your fellow class members, stage a "colloquy" for the class. Select your problem from the list given at the end of this chapter. Invite a consultant to come in and sit with you. Instruct the consultant that he is to speak only when called on, and that he is to keep his comments as brief as possible. Choose a chairman from among your group, and prepare an out line for your conference, similar to the one given in this chapter. Be certain that your consultant has a copy of this outline before he comes to be with you. Seat your consultant at one end of the table, in a position close to the audience. Allow the class to ask your group questions, but do not let the audience question the consultant directly. If you wish to refer to the consultant any of the questions asked, that is your privilege.

7. Along with five of your fellow class members, stage a "symposium" for the class. Choose a chairman for the group, and let the other five conferees each prepare a five-minute presentation on an agreed-upon felt need. The presentation should define the problem, analyse it, and present possible solutions. The chair man should summarize after each five-minute report, and make an over-all summary at the end. The class should then be invited by the chairman to ask questions of the members of the symposium.

8. Divide the class into groups of three. Assign each group a different chapter from this book and have each group prepare and deliver a five-minute discussion on that chapter. Following the discussion the class members may ask questions, or challenge topics from the discussion. Remember, every member of the class will have read the chapter; it is important that all the facts and statements are correct. This is also a good way to review the boot for examinations.

DISCUSSION OUTLINE I. THE FELT NEED Should Charles I, King of England from 1625 to 1649 be depicted as a weakling and a villain? A. Definition of weakling: one who is easily influenced and who cannot make decisions himself but must depend on others to take action. B. Definition of villain a vicious, evil person who is capable of great crimes. II. ANALYSIS OF THE FELT NEED A. Was Charles I a weakling and dominated by-others? 1. Was he influenced by George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham? Evan John in his book, King Charles I, says: Villiers was "...the greatest, perhaps the only, friend of King Charles. He was not unworthy of friendship, but his long continuance in a paramount position at the King's Council was a national disaster." Esme Wingfield-Stratford in his book, Charles I, King of England. says: "He (CharlesT had learned one thing:... never to allow a repetition of the Buckingham experiences; never to resign his freedom of choice and judgment to the keeping of a favourite." 2. Was he influenced by Archbishop Laud? Wingfield-Stratford: "But Laudfs master was a struggling king in need of support." 3. Was he influenced by his wife, Henrietta of France? B. Was Charles I a villain? 1.Were the Star Chamber courts really infamous? Read case from Wingfield-Stratford in which Star Chamber defended a pauper. 2.Did the shipbuilding money really go for ships? "The money was applied with scrupulous honesty to the purpose for which it was asked." (Wingfield-Stratford). III. POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS A. The text was correct in depicting Charles I as a weakling and a villain. B. The text was wrong in depicting Charles I as a weakling and a villain. C. The text was correct in depicting Charles I as a weakling, but not in depicting him as a villain. D. The text was correct in depicting Charles I as a villain, but not in depicting him as a weakling. IV. SELECTION OF THE MOST REASONABLE SOLUTION FORM I EVALUATION OF INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE Subject for discussion: Name Period I Period II 1.     2.     3.     4.     5.     6.     7.     8.     9.     Grade Code: -Objective, original and significant contribution X-Explaining, summarizing, affirming or questioning O-Distracting contributions or behavior COMMENTS: Evaluator ___________________ Date: __________

Suggested Discussion Topics

1. Should colleges assist football players?
2. How should society punish criminals who commit crimes?
3. How can our state governments improve their legislatures?
4. Should military training be provided for the American high school student?
5. How can high school fraternities and sororities serve the needs of American youth?
6. How can accidents among teen-age drivers be reduced?
7. How can television better serve the American public?
8. How can the number of divorces be reduced?
9. How can the United Nations enforce its decisions more effectively?
10. How can the United States be assured of adequate manpower for defense?
11. How can the high school curriculum better prepare students for the atomic age?
12. How can educational television be made more effective?
13. What classic literature should high school students be required to read?
14. How can qualifications for voting be modified to improve the quality of national elections?
15. How can the number of persons voting in national elections be increased?
16. How can drinking among teen-agers be discouraged?
17. How can high school graduates be encouraged to go on to college?
18. How can debate be made more glamorous to high school students?
19. What is the effect of the comic book on the American child?
20. What improvements can be made in the social life of the high school student?
21. How can the Civilian Defense Program be improved?
22. Should gambling in the United States be legalized?
23. What should be our present attitude toward the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution?
24. How can juvenile delinquency be reduced? (Curfew, education, raise limits for driver's licenses, etc.)
25. Should atomic testing be banned?

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