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Chapter 13. Public Speaking

There are times when each of us is called upon to address a group of people. There is no reason why we cannot approach this challenge with relative ease and self-confidence. It will be the purpose of this chapter to point out one basic method for formulating the public speech. The authors do not believe that anyone who makes a good speech must follow these directions, but we do believe that anyone who does follow them will make an acceptable presentation.

1. The Purpose of Speaking

Public speeches are delivered on many different occasions, but no matter what the occasion, the speaker hopes to get the audience to accept his point of view. Therefore, in a certain sense, all speeches are persuasive speeches:

Persuading the audience to believe your information persuading the audience to change its beliefs persuading the audience not only to change its beliefs, but also to act on the changes.

Perhaps you wish to inform the audience about capital punishment. Or, you may wish to get them to change their beliefs about capital punishment. Or, you may not only wish them to change their beliefs about capital punishment, but to write letters to the governor telling him what action to take. The purpose is determined by the type of audience you are speaking to; by the circumstances of the speech; and sometimes by the course of action that you recommend.

But, whether the purpose of a particular speech is determined by the audience, by the circumstances, or by the speaker himself, preparation of the public speech must begin with the establishment of the purpose of the speech. This purpose should be put into a sentence which is specific and concrete. A clear knowledge of the purpose in speaking is as helpful to the speaker as a road map is to the driver. The purpose gives direction to the speech and, to a degree, governs all subsequent efforts the speaker makes.

The speaker should therefore begin preparing his speech by asking himself just what action he wishes his audience to take. We call this desired action the intended audience response (IAR). The intended audience response should aid the audience, not just the speaker. We expect each speaker to be responsible for the welfare of the audience. When Hitler spoke to the German people prior to and during World War II, he sought and received support for a military machine that ultimately brought death and destruction to Germany. We believe, therefore, that he misled the German people. His intended audience response should not have been taken by the people, in their own self-interest. The President of the United States has, on the other hand, suggested the exchange of atomic energy secrets and fissionable materials among the nations of the world. This is an action that people could take in their own self-interest.

A person who would deliberately recommend action by the audience that was to their detriment is dishonest; he who would do so unknowingly is ignorant. Certainly, the public speaker must avoid being either.

IN MAKING A SPEECH, ALWAYS KEEP IN MIND THE INTENDED AUDIENCE RESPONSE (IAR).

A speaker may recommend action that would be beneficial to the audience, but impractical to carry out. A speaker who would select such an IAR will, of course, fail. To avoid such failure, the speaker should be able to answer these questions in the affirmative:

Does the audience have the authority to make the IAR?

(Politicians do not address children.) Does the audience have the capability to make the IAR?

(Appeals for charitable contributions are not made to beggars.) Would it be appropriate for the audience to make the IAR?

(Women should not be asked to volunteer for heavy labor.)

In addition, the speaker should not ask for a response that he has neither the time nor the support to justify.

2. Selection of the Central Idea

As we pointed out in an earlier chapter, people will take action consistent with the ideas they accept. In order to get an audience to accept the IAR, a speaker must present an idea that will lead to the desired response. In order to clarify the relation between the central idea (CI) and the intended audience response, let us consider the following examples:

IAR

Donate money to charity

Vote in the next national election

Read better books

CI

1. If you donate money to charity, you fulfill your social obligation.
2. If you donate money to charity, you may deduct it from your income taxes.
3. Charitable organizations will help your own community.

1. It is a privilege to vote.
2. It is a civic duty to vote.
3. Vote to have good government.

1. There are great love stories among the classics.
2. Biographies can be instructive.
3. Historical novels can be enjoyable reading.

These examples of central ideas may appear at first glance to be mere arguments in favor of taking the recommended action. In some cases, this may be true. Let us distinguish between a central idea and an argument. A central idea is that idea, which, if accepted, will bring about the IAR. In the examples above, if the audience is the congregation in a church, the first listed central idea for donating money to charity would be a wise selection. If the audience were all business men, the deduction of charitable donations from income taxes would be a better choice. If neither of these would seem appropriate, the appeal* to self-interest would be the best choice. It is clear that one particular group would accept one idea more readily than another. The selection of the central idea is simply a question of which idea (when fully developed) will influence the audience to take the action desired by the speaker.

When selecting the central idea, like choosing the IAR, the speaker must consider the nature of his audience. The CI he selects must be within the intellectual grasp of his audience. The audience must have had the experience necessary to understand the idea. The CI should be a challenge to the audience. It must not be hackneyed.

3. Subdivisions of the Speech

When you have selected the CI, you should then divide it into several sub-ideas which will, in turn, become the main headings of the body of your speech. The selection of the headings of a speech is an important step in the planning.

First, the headings, when taken together, should completely cover the subject. For example, a speech with the central idea that "The United States Government is efficient," should have the following subordinate ideas:

A. The Legislative Branch is Efficient

B. The Executive Branch is Efficient

C. The Judicial Branch is Efficient

The government has three branches. There are no other parts. The full development of these headings treats the central idea and shows that the entire government is efficient. Having one central idea, broken up into sub-ideas properly selected and supported, is a means of insuring unity in a speech. As a result of this unity, the audience will believe that you have given it a complete picture.

Your own experience will show you that using only a few sub-divisions will help you understand and remember a complex idea, while too many will tend to confuse you. Therefore, the sub-ideas should not exceed five. Past experience indicates that five separate headings approach the maximum number of items that people can easily remember. Too many sub-heads can actually damage the unity of your speech. More than five sub-ideas spell "danger" to the speaker.

The headings should be of comparable nature and value. This quality makes the speech easier to follow and easier to understand. It also insures balance. To make this clear, consider the following examples:

Good Bad
CI: Midwestern is an excel- CI: Midwestern is an excel
lent college to attend. lent college to attend.
A. The faculty is well A. The faculty is well
trained. trained.
B. The student body B. The college pro-
is excellent. duces good plays.
C. The scholastic rat- C. The college has a
ing is high. good speech de-
partment.

Good Bad
CI: College education is a CI: College education is a
good investment. good investment.
A. College helps a A. College helps a
student profes- student profes-
sionally, sionally.
B. College helps a B. College students
student learn to can learn how to
use leisure time. dance.
C. College helps a C. Knowledge of his-
student to be a tory is important.
better citizen.

In the case of Midwestern College, the division of the central idea into three headings-faculty, students, and scholastic rating-takes advantage of the commonly used division of the college into its parts. Each is a necessary item. They are approximately equal in importance. The division labeled "bad", however, puts one department, and even part of the function of that one department, on the same level as the faculty of all departments. This type of organization leads to confused thinking. Can you criticize the second example for yourself?

Again, the central idea components should be placed into an order that can be readily grasped and easily recalled by the audience. Sub-ideas usually lend themselves better to one particular division than to another, and people usually think about them in the most natural order. Therefore, the speaker should attempt to discover the best sequence in which to present his ideas. Several common methods of sub-dividing the central idea are as follows:

Division According To: Examples of Subjects:

Space Mountains of North America

(From east to west)

Time History of the Labor Movement

(From beginning to present)

Topical The United States Government

(Executive, legislative, judicial)

Cause and Effect Driving Safety

(Speed, cause; death, effect)

Problem Solving Federal Aid to Education

(Need, possible solutions, best solution)

The method used to divide the central idea is referred to as the thought pattern. Sometimes the thought pattern helps to determine the order in which the sub-ideas are presented. For instance, in most narration a simple chronological order is used. Description often follows the space order. The problem-solving division proceeds from need through solution. The speaker, however, should consider what suggested order would be most effective for his speech. You have probably attended movies where the simple time order was not followed. The story began with the ending and flashed back to the beginning. This is done often for a better effect on the audience. The speaker should consider, therefore, both the logical and the psychological effects of the order of his speech.

The order in which speech materials are presented can either strengthen or weaken the effect of the speech. The speaker may find that his speech fits properly into one of the thought patterns. If not, then, he should arrange his data in relation to the strength of each point. A speech may be organized around either three or five points. The more nearly your ideas approximate one of the following arrangements, the more effective your speech will be.

Three Points in Speech Five Points in Speech

Strong Strong

Not so strong Not so strong

Strongest Stronger

Not so strong Strongest

4. The Support for Sub-Ideas

A speaker's ideas are only as good as the justification he presents for acting on these ideas. Where to find these materials has been discussed previously. The problem we have yet to consider is how to put this support down on paper.

The Form of the Outline

The speaker should begin the outline of the speech by stating the intended audience response in as concrete terms as is possible. This assures the speaker that his thinking about his purpose for speaking is clear. He should then record the central idea. This is the next step because the selection of the central idea will determine the framework of the speech. After selecting the central idea, the speaker should check to see if it actually will (when developed) bring about the desired response.

Division of the central idea into sub-ideas should be the next step. When this has been done, the work sheet used in speech preparation should look like this:

IAR: All members of our Senior Class should try-to enter college next year. CI: A college education is a decided advantage to a person's success in our modern world. I. Introduction II. Body A. (Strong Point) Colleges provide training for effective citizen ship in a democracy. B. (Not so strong) Colleges provide training for pleasurable and profitable use of leisure time. C. (Strongest) Colleges provide training in the skills necessary for success in our highly complex and competitive modern world. Note that the titles, introduction, and the conclusion are left unplanned. The reason for this will be discussed later.

Recording the Support

Before completing the outline, it is necessary, of course, to explore each sub-idea, read about it, talk about it, and record whatever support can be found for it. At this point it may be necessary to review the central idea and sub-ideas to see if your reading and other research will enable you to improve upon your previous choice of headings. The next problem is to select from the recorded materials, the best supports available for each particular idea; decide how much is needed and arrange them in the most effective way. If some headings require more specific data for support than has been found, additional research should be done. The outlining of the supports for a sub-idea looks like this:

A. Colleges Provide Professional Training in Skills Required in Our Modern World.

1. If you are going to be a medical doctor, colleges offer training in:

a. The nature and functions of the human body.

b. The chemical reactions upon which human life depends.

2. If you are going to be a teacher, colleges offer training in:

a. Psychology, necessary to understand the students you will teach.

b. Major and minor subjects that you will teach.

c. Methods to use in the classroom.

3. If you are going to be a scientist, colleges offer training in:

a. Mathematics underlying scientific fields.

b. The theory of physics necessary to understanding a particular field.

c. Special training in the field you select.

Just as the main heading of the speech must contribute to the central idea, so must each sub-head pertain to and reinforce the heading under which it falls.

Now that we have the ideas set down, we need to ask one more question: "Which of these ideas will the audience accept on my own authority, and which of these ideas will require additional support?" In general, the more radical the statement, the more likely it is that you will need to refer to a source of reference to persuade the audience to your way of thinking.

You will recall that, in chapter one, entitled What Do We Talk About?, we listed three different ways to look for sources of information: the interview, written material (including the library and letter writing), and the field trip. We have assumed in this chapter that you have informed yourself on your subject by using these methods. Now, the problem is where and how much of this source material should be included in your speech? Note the following example. Here a high school student was speaking on a subject with which he had only limited experience. Therefore, it was necessary for him to point out to his audience the sources of his information.

BODY OF SPEECH Why our class should adopt a child under the "Save the Children Federation" program. 1.We will be helping a less fortunate child to a better life and, at the same time, cement better international feeling toward the United States. Quote from the "Save the Children Federation" pamphlet, p. 3. 2. We will be grateful for fulfilling our moral and social obligations. Quote from: Constance Fucitos article, "I Am Grateful to My International Family'", Readers Digest. January, 1959.

If the student had had sufficient time, he should have supported each idea with more than one source of information. It would be wise for the speaker to have these sources of information in his hands, so that the audience can see them. If he does this, he does not have to read at length from the sources, but they will serve as attention-getting devices to reinforce his ideas.

5. Preparation of the Introduction and the Conclusion

After the body of the speech is complete, and only then, is it possible to determine an appropriate introduction and conclusion.

Planning the Introduction

The purpose of the introduction is to prepare the audience to hear your speech. In order to do this, it must get the attention of the audience, make the audience like or respect you (or both), and create an interest in the ideas you are going to present.

Speak Audibly. This needs little comment since a speech unheard is practically the same as a speech unmade. The members of the audience need to listen from the beginning in order to understand the speech fully. What can be said to gain attention will, of course, depend upon the speaker, the audience, and the situation. Some approaches that have been successful in the past are:

A startling statement: "More people have been killed on our highways than have died on all the battlefields in the history of the world!"

A seemingly unbelievable but true statement: "There are many Americans who actually enjoy paying their income taxes."

A question or a series of questions: "Have you ever stopped to think what it would be like to live in Red China? Have you ever wondered what it would be like to be a Chinese Communist?"

A familiar quotation: "For of all sad words of tongue or pen, the saddest are these: It might have been!'"

The business-like approach: "Today we are going to discuss three factors. First, we shall consider . . . etc."

An example: You may use a serious story, an anecdote, a joke, or a parable. Remember that one illustration is worth a thousand words of explanation. All the world likes a good story.

Notice how speakers you hear get the attention of their audience. Remember, the first sentence you say will be listened to by all. You may never again have so high a percentage of listeners. Don't miss your best opportunity by wasting it on formalities or trivialities. The routine recognition of important guests can be left to a less important part of the speech. "Ladies and gentlemen" is the safest type of salutation and is usually used in most speech situations.

Now that you have the attention of the audience, you need to concentrate on making the audience like or respect you enough to listen. With a hostile audience, it may be necessary to prolong the introduction, but for most audiences, it is sufficient that you be well-prepared to speak to them, that you be interested in them, and that you get the job done as quickly and as well as possible. Avoid long-winded introductions. Get to the point. Avoid apologies at all costs. The speaker who says, "I'm not very qualified to talk to you on this subject, but . . ." ought not to be speaking to begin with.

Your introduction should arouse the interest of your audience in the theme of your speech. Therefore, your startling statement, challenging statement, series of questions, familiar quotation, business-like approach, or illustration should point up the theme of your speech. Do not warm up the audience with a few unrelated jokes and then say, in effect, "Well, we had better get back to the speech." You can tell jokes but choose ones which illustrate your point.

If you think you will be nervous during the first few minutes of your speech, begin with an introduction that will require movement. Put a chart on one side of the platform so that you can walk over and point to it, set up a demonstration and practice opening with it, or plan to have a few pieces of note paper in your hands at the beginning. A physical movement will assist in calming you. Plan enough movement in your introduction to put yourself at ease.

It can be seen from the above discussion that an introduction for a particular speech must be worked out in terms of the nature of the speech, the speaker, the audience, and the speech situation. We have offered some general suggestions that you might try out in your speeches, but we must repeat these cautions:

First, introductions should be as brief as possible.

Second, materials in introductions should be included only if they contribute to one of the three purposes of the introduction.

Third, the more original and the more timely it is, the more effective the introduction will be.

Fourth, all introductions should be planned, yet flexible enough to incorporate events that happen as late as your own introduction.

Planning the Conclusion

The purpose of the conclusion is to draw the whole speech together in a few words. In order to do this, it must give the audience a sense of finality or completeness, summarize the content of the body of the speech, and/or arouse the audience to action. Although a conclusion may achieve all three of these purposes, any one of them may be sufficient to meet the needs of an individual speech.

In order to give the audience a sense of finality or completeness, the conclusion should be adequately designed to balance the introduction and the body. It should be neither too long, nor too short. Avoid the anti-climax. There is nothing worse for an audience than to think that a speaker is concluding, only to find that he has gained steam and is moving on to something new. A preview of your speech in your introduction will help to avoid these anti-climaxes. Here are some suggestions for giving your conclusion a sense of completeness:

A significant quotation: Save a particularly effective sentence from one of your best sources and use it as the basis of your conclusion. You might say, "My remarks encouraging this class to adopt a child overseas, under the Save the Children Federation, may be most effectively concluded by quoting Constance Capron from her Reader's Digest article, when she said, 1 was ashamed that my own troubles, now petty by comparison, had blinded me to the realities of life.' Are we in this same fix?"

A startling statistic: "Only 5,500 children are now being sponsored through the Save the Children Federation. Only 5,500. Think of the thousands more who need help. Are there not more than 5,500 families in the United States who can afford to share a small amount of their income with a destitute child overseas?"

A fitting example: "Let me tell you one story before I end my speech. This is the story of Stella Saradari of Serres, Greece. Her father died fighting the Communists in the mountains of Greece; her mother is a scrub woman. Stella, her brother Con-stantine, and her mother live in one room. Their house fell down after a particularly hard winter, and had to be rebuilt by neighbors ..."

The conclusion to every speech ought to summarize its content. If you tell an audience in your introduction what to expect in the speech, by saying, "I am going to discuss three things with you;" if you point out to the audience in the body of the speech when you are discussing each of these by saying, "Now first, we will discuss . . . ;" and if, in your conclusion, you say, "Now, I have told you three things about . . .," your audience cannot help but get a clear picture of your message. If this sounds too elementary to you, remember that you are already highly familiar with the content of your speech and have gone over the material several times. Your audience, on the contrary, has not had this opportunity. If you give an audience three reviews of your main structure (once in the introduction, once in the body, and once in the conclusion), you need have no fears of being misunderstood.

The suggested conclusions will, to a very great extent, summarize your content. But, your central idea will be even clearer if you also review for your audience the main parts of your speech. If you are not organized, you cannot make such a summary.

The third purpose of a conclusion is to arouse an audience to action. Since we act mainly on emotion, this type of conclusion must be emotional. It should stir up the feelings of the audience and give it the strength to act. However, the speaker has one obligation; if he wishes the audience to act, he should be as specific as he can be in telling it just what to do to solve the problem.

At least one of the remedies must be simple enough for any member of the audience to do by himself. Grandiose schemes may be fine, but when a member of the audience leaves after your speech, he should be able to do something to aid your cause. He will be much more likely to act if your directions include something which he can initiate himself. You may suggest that he can write a letter, or contribute a reasonable sum of money, or call a friend on the telephone, or read further about a given topic. If you think long enough and well enough, you can devise a specific action that each person can do. Then, if your emotional conclusion is successful, you will have given both a reason and a means for action.

6. Selection of the Title of the Speech

Sometimes, the selection of a good title for a speech is very important. Sometimes, a speech needs no title at all. It is only when a title has an opportunity to contribute to the speaking situation, that the speaker should spend time and effort in creating it. The times when a title is important are (1) when the speech is to be given publicity, (2) when there is to be a printed program, (3) when there will be a chairman to introduce the speaker. In the first case the title of your speech, if carefully chosen, may bring some people to hear you who otherwise would not come. If you are being introduced by a chairman, of course, he should be able to tell his audience the subject of your speech, and announcing the title is one of the best ways of doing this. A good title may also supplement your introduction by gaining audience interest.

Since titles are important in certain situations, let us look at some of the qualities a good title should have.

First, the title should indicate the subject of your speech but not reveal it entirely. People are intrigued by suggestions that leave something to their imaginations. The title, however, should not lead the audience to believe you will speak on one subject when you plan to give a talk on another.

Second, the title should be brief and eye-catching. Titles that can be read at a glance are much more effective than long ones. It is safe to say that the longer the title, the fewer people will read it. Long titles defeat the very purpose for which they are intended.

Third, the title should be original, if possible. Overworked titles are unattractive and will defeat the purpose for which one is selected.

Titles may take many forms. Variations include a quotation, a question, a paradoxical statement, or a shocking statement. Whatever title you pick, it must serve the purpose of attracting attention to your presentation. If there will be no opportunity to use a title, or to have it announced, don't waste time developing one. To recite the title of a speech is a most unattractive way to begin.

Here are some examples of effective titles:

Run, Not Walk, to the (for a speech on the need to
Nearest Exit control atomic energy)

The Ominous Cloud (for a speech on Russian foreign policy)

I Stutter (for a speech on stuttering and how it can be controlled)

That's Why the Lady Is a Champ (for a speech on a female tennis star)

7. Speech Delivery

Good ideas poorly expressed become poor ideas. It does little good to work diligently to prepare an excellent speech if you cannot deliver it effectively to your audience.

Types of Delivery

There are several ways you can prepare for your speech delivery:

You may ponder the subject, read about it, converse with others about it, and then, when called upon to discuss the subject, speak on it with no specific preparation for that speech. This is called impromptu speaking.

You may make the same preparation called for in impromptu speaking, with the addition that you put advance planning into the organization of your remarks by preparing an outline such as recommended in this chapter. You fix this outline firmly in your mind and rehearse your speech from the outline. This is called extemporaneous speaking.

Temporary escape from the labor of reasoning; but humor should never be an end in itself. It should never replace reasoning and evidence, nor should it be used as ridicule.

You may make the same preparation called for in extemporaneous speaking, except that, after you finish your outline, you write a manuscript of the speech, putting down word for word, in good English usage, the thoughts you wish to express. When the time for speaking arrives, you read the manuscript. This is called manuscript speaking.

You may make the same preparations called for in manuscript speaking, except that after the manuscript has been completed, you commit it to memory. This is called memorized speaking. Each of these types of delivery has its advantages.

For some speeches there can be no specific advance preparation. Suppose, for example, that you are attending a club meeting and have not been told that you will be asked to speak, but you are. Begin your remarks in a logical manner. Say, "I intend to tell you three things about my experiences in Colorado," or "There are three experiences we had on our field trip to The Washburn Company that I would like to relate." Then number each point as you come to it. You will be surprised how much this will help you.

The extemporaneous speech, which is stressed in this chapter, has the advantage of appearing natural and conversational, without lacking specific advanced preparation. It tends to stress the ideas that the speaker is talking about, rather than the words he is using to express the ideas, as may be true of the manuscript speeches. Your words should be the servants of ideas, not the masters of them, and extemporaneous delivery keeps them in their place. Also, extemporaneous delivery allows the speaker sufficient flexibility. Whereas, the impromptu speech may be too flexible and therefore digress, the memorized or manuscript de*livery will not be flexible enough. We often seem to be so proud of the manuscript that we have written, that we do not want to leave out a word of it; but, if our advance concepts of our audience have been erroneous, we will then have little or no opportunity to correct them as the speech progresses. Lastly, extemporaneous speaking has the advantage that the speaker is much less apt to forget what comes next than he is in the impromptu or the memorized speech. True, the manuscript speech is surer, but it lacks the quality of directness. If you implant the outline of your extemporaneous speech firmly in your mind and then have a reminder of it in your hands in the form of notes, you will be less likely to forget. If you do forget, you can pick up your place with little difficulty. Modern speech-making is like good conversation. People expect the speaker to talk directly to them, in a friendly and natural manner.

The manuscript delivery has the advantage of polish and style. It also gives the speaker confidence, if he is dealing with situations where an error may be fatal. A politician speaking before a labor convention may not be able to afford a mistake. It might be his undoing. The manuscript speeches are said to insure greater factual content, but this is not necessarily so. The memorized speech may make you sound highly intelligent, but, if you forget, you will appear very ignorant indeed. We repeatedly see national politicians using manuscript speaking on television. Don't you think it might be possible for them to use extemporaneous speaking to greater effect?

Extemporaneous Delivery. In preparing your notes, you will need to make an abbreviation of your speech outline to be used as notes for your speech. For this purpose, we suggest you use 3x5 index cards. Use only one side of the card, and number each one. Write key phrases, not complete sentences. If you use more than one card for a speech, avoid starting a main point at the bottom of one card and carrying it over to the top of the next. Change cards as you change major points. Space out the points on your card, so that you can glance down and find your place quickly. (See the sample cards at the end of this chapter.)

In committing the major points of your outline to memory, you should use your notes to help you memorize the main points of the speech. You should be able to name these points, without having to look at your notes. Do not try to memorize all of the sub-points under each main point, but fix these main points firmly in your mind.

With your notes in hand, rehearse your speech several times. During your rehearsals, consider the following points:

Movement-Should I plan any movement before my audience? I know that movement attracts attention, and I want to keep the attention of my audience. Could I plan to move between the main points of my speech, and remain in a fixed position otherwise?

Speakers stand-Should I plan to use the speaker's stand? I know that it will partially block me from my audience, but it may give me some security. I know that I should not worry about letting my audience see my notes, since this shows that I am well prepared, so I do not need the speaker's stand for that reason. Perhaps, if I stand to one side of the speaker's stand and plan to move to the other side of it at least once, I can use it. But, I should be wary of leaning on it.

Gestures-Should I plan to move my arms to help me in my speech? I know that this again is movement, and movement helps me keep audience's attention. I know I will probably feel awkward the first time I try to use gestures, but I should take confidence in the fact that they will eventually seem natural. I should probably try to gesture two or three times and see how these gestures work out.

Eye contact-How much of the time should I look at my audience? Where should I focus my gaze? I know that people like to be looked at. I also know that the edges of my audience, particularly the back row and the people in the front row at either side, are likely to be missed, unless I purposely plan to look at them. I know I should avoid looking out the window or up at the ceiling. I should look at my audience at least half the time, and probably, to do well, my eyes should be on them 75% to 90% of the time.

Moving to the rostrum-I know I will usually have to wait before I can take my place at the stand. I know I should appear natural here and inspect my audience well. Here is an opportunity to pick out several persons in the back row or on the side aisles to focus on. When my name is called, I should walk purposely to the front, look at the audience, pause for a longer period than I think I ought to pause, and then begin. I KNOW THAT I SHOULD STAND AS CLOSE TO MY AUDIENCE AS POSSIBLE. Therefore, I may want to speak from the ground floor of the auditorium, rather than from the stage; in front of the desk, rather than behind the desk.

Voice-How should I speak? I know I should speak naturally, but I also should try to keep my pitch down and should speak loudly enough for everyone to hear me with comfort. If I have not spoken in the auditorium before, I should bring a friend with me and let him sit in the back row. Then, this friend can raise his hand if he thinks I need to speak louder. I should avoid asking the audience how well it can hear me, but rather figure this out for myself.

Formalities-Must I recognize the honored guests? Must I say thank you at the end? Here I should proceed cautiously. I know from the discussion of the introduction that my first sentence is a very important one. Perhaps I can refer to the guests in the middle of the speech, where such a reference is not expected, rather than at the beginning. And I can conclude my speech without saying, "Thank you". Rather, I should pause briefly after my last sentence and then take my seat.Formalities-Must I recognize the honored guests? Must I say thank you at the end? Here I should proceed cautiously. I know from the discussion of the introduction that my first sentence is a very important one. Perhaps I can refer to the guests in the middle of the speech, where such a reference is not expected, rather than at the beginning. And I can conclude my speech without saying, "Thank you". Rather, I should pause briefly after my last sentence and then take my seat.

Visual aids-Should I use some charts, pictures, or demonstrations in my delivery? I know that this will add variety. I should remember that, if I have any statistics to present to my audience, it will be helpful if my audience can SEE as well as HEAR these figures. Perhaps, I can use the blackboard. Perhaps, I ought to make a chart to put this point across. Perhaps, I should plan to demonstrate this other point, rather than just talking about it.

The most important advice that can be given to a beginning speaker is to use variation in all that he does. This means variation not only in content; it means variation in voice, language, and bodily action. A speaker, for instance, cannot use the same rate of speech for any length of time without becoming monotonous. This is true of pitch and volume, too. Variation in all phases of speaking will hold attention and interest. Lack of variation will lose the members of the audience.

Summary

Public speaking situations are usually ones in which you stand before an audience and you alone do the speaking. Because of this, it is possible for you to approach those situations with a particular method. That method begins with selecting an intended audience response for the speech, appropriate for the speaking situation. Once the IAR is determined, the next step is to select a central idea that will bring about that response. The CI is the theme or unifying idea around which the entire speech is built. The CI is broken up into sub-ideas, and these sub-ideas become the headings for the body of the speech. Reading, listening, investigating, talking, and other means are used to supply the necessary materials to support the sub-ideas or headings of the speech. When adequate support has been developed for each heading, the materials collected should be put down in outline form to check their adequacy and logical consistency. When the correct amount of support (thoroughly verified) has been outlined for each sub-heading of the speech, the remaining task is to determine a proper introduction and conclusion. In situations requiring that the speech be given a title, select one that is brief, eye-catching, and original.

WHEN SELECTING THE CENTRAL IDEA (CI) OF A SPEECH, A SPEAKER MUST CONSIDER THE NATURE OF HIS AUDIENCE

The presentation of the speech is as important as the preparation of the speech. Modern practice calls for extemporaneous delivery on most occasions, that is, conversational, direct, and lively. Bodily action should be used freely, so long as it contributes to the ideas expressed, but should be avoided if it attracts attention to itself. Variety in delivery is the goal to work for.

Exercises

1. Choose as a topic a problem of your community. Your goal is to persuade your audience to believe certain information about this problem. Interview civic leaders and/or read magazines and/or read books to inform yourself about the problem.

a. write your IAR.

b. write your CI.

c. compose a title.

d. formulate a four to six minute speech outline, dividing the outline into an introduction, body, and conclusion.

e. deliver the speech to the class.

2. Choose a guarantee of a commercial product (such as a guarantee on washing machines, watches, tires, automobiles. etc.). Your goal is to persuade your audience that this is, or is not, a reliable guarantee. Interview merchants in your town and people who have used the product. Then perform the following:

a. write your IAR.

b. write your CI.

c. compose a title.

d. formulate a four to six minute speech outline, dividing the outline into an introduction, body, and conclusion. (BE CERTAIN TO STATE YOUR SOURCES OF INFORMATION WHENEVER YOU GIVE A CONTROVERSIAL STATEMENT.)

e. prepare a set of notes on 3x5 cards.

f. deliver the speech to the class.

3. Choose a local or national charity (Community Chest, Heart Fund, CARE, The National Foundation, The Children's Home, Save the Children Federation, YMCA, etc.). Your goal is to persuade your audience not only to modify its beliefs about this charity, but also to act on the change by giving of its time and money. Interview, write letters, and read until you are informed on your subject. Then perform the following:

a. write your IAR.

b. write your CI.

c. compose your title.

d. formulate a four to six minute speech outline, dividing your outline into an introduction, body, and conclusion. (BE CERTAIN TO SAY IN THE CONCLUSION EXACTLY WHAT YOU WISH YOUR AUDIENCE TO DO.)

e. prepare a set of notes on 3 x 5 cards.

f. deliver the speech to the class.

4. Your IAR is to get your high school to adopt a "clean-up" program of painting, scrubbing, etc., organized and carried out by the students. Formulate three different CI's for this IAR.

5. Take each of the following CI's, and formulate three major steps for the body of a speech on each:

a. CI: Eighteen-year-olds should be permitted to vote.

b. CI: All high school students should be required to participate in some sport.

c. CI: All high school students should be required to take a course in automobile driving.

6. For any one of the speech themes mentioned in Exercise 5, formulate an introduction. First, use one of the six approaches to getting the attention of the audience mentioned in this chapter; second, give a preview of the three main points in the body of the speech by saying, "In my speech on professional boxing, I am going to tell you three things. First, . . ."

7. For any one of the speech themes mentioned in Exercise 5, formulate a conclusion. Use any one of the three suggestions in this chapter for giving the audience a sense of completeness in the conclusion; second, give a post view of the three main points in the body of the speech by saying, "I have told you three things. First, . ".

8. With three or four of your fellow students, present to your class a conference or discussion on any one of the following delivery techniques:

a. movement

b. use of the speaker's stand

c. gestures

d. eye contact

e. moving to the rostrum

f. voice

g. formalities

h. visual aids

SAMPLE NOTE CARDS

1.IS THERE PLANT LIFE ON MARS? a. show lichens b. show cactus

1.This Week Magazine June 20, 1954. Dr. D. Richardson of Mt. W. and Palomar says green markings "They change in appearance with the Martian seasons, deepening in tone and becoming greener in spring, fading and turning brown in autumn and winter."

1. Be sure to number each card clearly.
2. Be sure to space points far apart for easy reading.
3. Do not begin another main point at the bottom of the card if there is not room for all of it". Go on to another card and number it clearly.

SAMPLE OUTLINE IAR: Members of the audience should believe there really is life on Mars. CI: Science believes there is life on -Mars but there is still very little known. Title: Does Life Exist on Mars? INTRODUCTION ATTENTION: Read from comic strip, "Flash Gordon.." DEVICE: "These Mesmen arent telepathic! They TALK THROUGH THEIR EARS!" CI: We are more certain there is life on Mars, but there is still little known PREVIEW OF SPEECH: I am going to tell you two things about Mars: 1. There is general agreement that vegetable life exists on Mars. 2. There is much doubt about animal life. BODY FIRST MAIN Is there plant life on Mars? POINT: 1. Quote from This Week Magazine. June 20, 1954, Dr. D. Richardson of Mt. Wilson and Palomar Observatories says green marks on Mars. a. show lichens b. show cactus 2.Furthermore, Richardson says of these green, markings, "They change in appearance with the Martian seasons, deepening in tone and becoming greener in spring, fading and turning brown in autumn and winter" SECOND MAIN Is there animal life on Mars? POINT: 1. In 1877, an Italian, Schiaparelli, published map showing "canali", (Italian for "channel"). 2. Tell story of Sir Percival Lowell who before death in 1916 became convinced of life on Mars. 3. Very little, if any, oxygen on Mars; 1/1000 as much as here. 4. Sir Arthur Eddington in his 1928 book, THE NATURE OF THE PHYSICAL WORLD: "...I do not think that the whole purpose of the Creation has been staked on the one planet where we live; and in the long run we cannot deem ourselves the only race that has been or will be gifted with the mystery of consciousness."

CONCLUSION

REPEATING MAIN POINTS:

CLINCHING POINT:

I have told you two main things about Mars.

1. Is there plant life? Yes, but not much known.
2. Is there animal life? Probably not, but not much known.

Quote from John Pfeiffer's THE CHANGING UNIVERSE (New York: Random House, 1956), on how we are now "listening to the stars".

SAMPLE SPEECH OUTLINE (All materials which are attention-getting devices are underlined.) IAR: Understanding the importance of the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls. CI: The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls confirmed many religious beliefs and substantiated the translations of some early Christian literature. TITLE: What Are the Dead Sea Scrolls? INTRODUCTION I. The Dead Sea Scrolls have been called the most important single discovery of this century. (Display map of the Dead Sea, locate and tell where the scrolls were found.) II. In order to tell the story of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the subject is divided into three parts: A. How the scrolls were discovered. B. How the scrolls and fragments were edited. C. What the Dead Sea Scrolls have revealed. BODY I. HOW the scrolls were discovered. A. Tell of finding scrolls. (Tell story of Muhammad Adh-Dib. from Don Whartons WHATS ALL THIS ABOUT THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS.) B. Tell how the scrolls were discovered. 1. Bedouin boy tried to sell scrolls. 2. First "diggings" and location of scrolls. (Tell story of how funds were raised to buy fragments.) Summary: This discovery of a simple Bedouin boy was only the beginning of a chain reaction necessary to secure the scrolls. II. How the scrolls and fragments were edited, A. Tell difficulty of cleaning, brushing, photographing and hydrating. (Display-pictures of scrolls of DEAD SEA SCROLLS.) B. Tell how work was divided among scholars. C. Tell of editing process. 1. Each scholar deciphered. 2. Each checked for missing pieces 3. Each compared translation with standard version of the BIBLE. Summary: The preparation and editing of the scrolls was an international project. III. What the Dead Sea Scrolls have revealed. A. Enumerate findings from caves. B. Why is all this important? 1. It was believed there could be no older revelations. 2. It is possible that a fuller truth can be established. (Quote Edmund Wilsons NEW YORKER article.) Summary: The scrolls have confirmed many religious beliefs and aided in a deeper understanding of Christianity.

CONCLUSION

I. I have tried to tell you three things about the Dead Sea Scrolls:
A. How the scrolls were discovered.
B. How the scrolls and fragments were edited.
C. What the Dead Sea Scrolls have revealed.

II. Will the present tension in the. Holy Lands prevent discovery of other scrolls? (Tell the story of the scholar who risked his life to preserve the scrolls and search for others.)

III. Future discoveries can benefit all mankind.

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